GHANA'S SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAM AND ITS IMPACT ON EDUCATION

 

Ghana's school feeding program and its impact on education.

Each nation over the globe endeavors to address the staggering social issues related with globalization and social change (Husein, 2014). The United Nations planned the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to fill in as a manual for member nations intending to address social issues. The initial two objectives of the SDG centers around the mitigation of extraordinary destitution and appetite. With these objectives, the United Nations planned for decreasing the number of inhabitants in individuals who experience the ill effects of yearning and neediness over the world by over half (United Nations, 2015b). As indicated by the World Food Program (WFP) (2015), one of the approaches to accomplishing the SDG 1 and 2 is by the execution of the school feeding program (SFP). Also, the United Nations Hunger Task Force (UNHTF) suggested that the execution of the SFP will help in lessening hunger among individuals and improve instructive results, explicitly on school enlistment, participation, finish and the scholastic performance of schoolchildren. Besides, the UNHTF likewise referenced that executing the SFP utilizing privately created merchandise as opposed to imported products will give job opportunities to numerous individuals in the nation which could in the end decrease the neediness rate. The SFP ought to incorporate micronutrients supplements, improved sanitation, deworming and standard adjusted weight control plans important to guarantee the development and advancement of schoolchildren (Husein, 2014; WFP, 2013). Numerous associations over the globe have received the UNHTF approach in actualizing SFPs (Del Rosso, 1999; Husein, 2014; NEPAD, 2002). The New Partnership on Africa Development (NEPAD), which was established in 2002 and part of the African Union and the European Union consolidated SFP and farming advancement (Husein, 2014). The target of this effort is to lessen lack of healthy sustenance among younger students and extend neighborhood interest for nourishment creation. This would improve nourishment security, increase job creation and extend agribusiness in Africa and other growing nations (NEPAD, 2002). Different associations and accomplices like the United Nations, WFP, the Government of the Netherlands, and the World Bank have likewise added to the execution of the school feeding program. There is an obvious input by the government of Ghana to elevate access to instruction in the nation. The 1992 constitution of Ghana determines the privilege of each kid in the nation in relation to essential training. It is accordingly basic as well as a duty of the administration to guarantee that obstructions to training are diminished and citizens’ access education (Husein, 2014). Therefore, the administration has actualized different approach systems and structures to elevate access to training for all. A portion of these measures incorporate the Capitation Grant, Free and Compulsory Education, Education for All, Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy, and Education Strategic Plan in 2003-2015 (Ghana Government, 2015; Husein, 2014). In spite of the critical commitments of these endeavors towards access to education, participation and finishing were still low among younger students (Ghana Government, 2015; Husein, 2014). As indicated by Husein (2014) and WFP (2013), yearning and neediness are issues that influence school participation and completion among younger students. Besides, yearning and neediness can unfavorably influence the scholastic performance of younger students (Yendaw and Dayour, 2014; Osei-Fosu, 2011; UNESCO, 2013). In light of this, the Government of Ghana presented the SFP in the year 2005 to reduce hunger which is a prevention to access training and scholarly exhibitions of schoolchildren. As indicated by NEPAD (2002), Ghana is the first of the 10 nations in Sub-Saharan Africa that executed the SFP as per rules set by NEPAD. The Ghana School Feeding Program (GSFP) was begun as an experimental run program in 2005 and executed the nation over in the year 2006 (NEPAD, 2002; Husein, 2014). The momentary destinations of the GSFP are to lighten craving and lack of healthy sustenance among schoolchildren, to energize nearby nourishment creation just as advance school enlistment, participation, and finish. The long haul advantage of the program is to add to the general destitution decrease through an expansion in work opportunities for individuals and the advancement of nourishment security (Ghana Government, 2015). Since the beginning of the program, inclusion has expanded from 1.04 million school children in 2010 to 1.7 million schoolchildren in 2014 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2015). The legislature of Ghana has picked up help from the WFP, the Netherlands Government and other global associations for actualizing the program in numerous country networks. Furthermore, the WFP helped the administration of Ghana by giving school meals to 122,000 schoolchildren in 304 schools in 2015 (WFP, 2015). In addition, the UNHTF has additionally upheld the program by giving seven proposals that fill in as a rule in the effective utilisation of the program.

As per WFP (2006), hunger is one of the most tenacious and harming issues suffered by schoolchildren of today. Likewise, Adelman et al. (2008) states that hunger overwhelmingly affects the performance of younger students in school. This is on the grounds that it influences the mental health and hinders the scholarly limit of kids (Bloom, 2009). As indicated by numerous researchers and therapists, intense and interminable starvation influences kids' capacity to remain mindful and perform well scholastically in school (Bloom, 2009; Dauncey, 2009; Kazal, 2002; Shariff, Bond, and Johnson, 2000). Also, the WFP (2006) and Grantham (1988) feature that starvation and poor instruction are interrelated in that a ravenous kid is less inclined to go to class. As per the World Food Program (2015), factors, for example, factors such as the distance from home to school, child labor, running family errands before school, and poor quality of food consumed at home can also contribute to poor academic performance.

Del Rosso et al., (1999) additionally specifies that SFPs and other school-based sustenance and wellbeing projects rouse guardians to enlist their youngsters in school and help guarantee that they go to class consistently. An expansion in enlistment and participation guarantees positive scholarly execution of kids in schools (UNESCO, 2015) which in the long run advances positive instructive results. An exploration led in Jamaica by Grantham-McGregor (1988) demonstrated that giving breakfast to elementary younger students expanded the participation and execution of the youngsters, particularly among the hindered and helpless kids. Furthermore, an investigation of the SFP in Burkina Faso uncovered that schools with containers or nourishment storerooms that give nourishment to the youngsters during school hours were related with expanded enlistment, participation and higher fruition rate (WFP, 2006). Regardless of the enormous improvements made in instruction crosswise over developing nations combined with a high increase in enlistment rate, numerous issues trouble training frameworks over the world (UNESCO, 2011; WFP, 2015). Destitution and starvation have kept around 67 million youngsters over the world out of grade school, 53% and 47% of these kids speak to young ladies and young men individually. Roughly 43% of these youngsters are found in the Sub-Saharan African district. Besides, the school dropout rate is expanding in numerous developing nations. In Sub-Saharan district alone, the assessed number of kids who dropped out of school expanded from 29 million of every 2008 to 31 million in 2010. What's more, the enlistment pace of younger students in grade schools has eased back in the previous decade (UNESCO, 2011; WFP, 2015).

As indicated by World Food Program (2015), SFPs upgrade sustenance and wellbeing of kids in schools. An upgraded sustenance blocks unhealthiness, diabetes, and dismalness among youngsters. Correspondingly, UNESCO (2015) reports that SFPs destroy extreme craving among younger students as well as more significantly upgrade youngster development and improvement. As determined by the WFP, dishes given under the school feeding program ought to contain micronutrients, and kilocalories vital for solid development and improvement. As indicated by World Health Organization (2015), micronutrients insufficiencies are the main source of diseases that are across board among kids particularly in developing nations. The mortality and bleakness rate among youngsters younger than five raised to over 90% and 80% individually from 1990 to 2015 (WHO, 2015). Likewise, in Nigeria, the significant reasons for mortality among kids have been related with ailing health, looseness of the bowels, intestinal sickness, immunization preventable illnesses and respiratory contaminations (Nigeria Federal Ministry of Education, 2007). In Nigeria, youth diseases represent 49% of school non-attendance among younger students. The SFP is along these lines actualized to address such issues and advance child development. Moreover, an expansion in the micronutrient especially in nutrients and irons are fundamental to the psychological improvement and learning limit of schoolchildren (Bloom, 2009; Dauncey, 2009; Kazal, 2002; Shariff, Bond, and Johnson, 2000). Additionally, proof backing that iron insufficiency and pallor are the significant reasons for grimness among younger students, which influence the greater part of the number of inhabitants in younger students over the globe (Grillenberger et al., 2003; Kristjansson et al., 2009). Ongoing examinations led in Kenya and Uganda on the effects of SFP, notwithstanding, uncover that the SFPs essentially decrease paleness and worm disease pervasiveness among schoolchildren (Adelman et al. 2008; Grillenberger et al., 2003).

PROBLEM

After the institution of the Millennium Development Goals by the United Nations to address social problems across the globe, many countries including Ghana have employed various approaches towards realizing the MDG’s (United Nations, 2015). The introduction of the SFP in Ghana has brought about the raise in access to education, attendance and completion among schoolchildren by reducing hunger (Husein, 2014; Yendaw & Dayour, 2014; Osei-Fosu, 2011; UNESCO, 2013). Regardless of the gains that the SFP has made on education, some scholars have found the program to be ineffective in achieving its stated goals (Agyeman, 2011). According to Agyeman (2011), the departure of many partners from the program has weakened the general coverage of the program as financial support has been reduced. Furthermore, although there are scarce findings that have been conducted to measure the impact of the SFP on enrollment, attendance, and completion in Ghana (Husein, 2014), there is no specific study that focuses on enrollment, attendance, and retention in the Akyem Swedru municipality of the Eastern Region of Ghana. There is, therefore, the need for an investigation that will fill the gap in the literature and provide specific information on the impacts of the SFP on educational outcomes among schoolchildren in Akyem Swedru municipality.

Importance of School Feeding Program

According to World Food Program (2015), SFPs enhance nutrition and health of children in schools. An enhanced nutrition precludes malnutrition, diabetes, and morbidity among children. Similarly, UNESCO (2015) reports that SFPs not only eradicate severe hunger among school children but more importantly enhance child growth and development. As specified by the WFP, meals provided under the school feeding program should contain micronutrient, and kilocalories necessary for healthy growth and development. According to World Health Organization (2015), micronutrient deficiencies are the leading cause of infections that are widespread among children especially in developing countries. The mortality and morbidity rate among children under the age of five escalated to over 90% and 80% respectively from 1990 to 2015 (WHO, 2015). Also, in Nigeria, the major causes of mortality among children have been associated with malnutrition, diarrhea, malaria, vaccine-preventable diseases and respiratory infections (Nigeria Federal Ministry of Education, 2007). In Nigeria, childhood illnesses account for 49% of school absenteeism among school children. The SFP is therefore implemented to address such issues and promote child growth.

Furthermore, an increase in the micronutrient particularly in vitamins and irons are essential to the cognitive development and learning capacity of schoolchildren (Bloom, 2009; Dauncey, 2009; Kazal, 2002; Shariff, Bond, & Johnson, 2000). Similarly, evidence supports that iron deficiency and anemia are the major causes of morbidity among school children, which affect more than half of the population of school children across the globe (Grillenberger et al., 2003; Kristjansson et al., 2009). Recent studies conducted in Kenya and Uganda on the impacts of SFP, however, reveal that the SFPs significantly reduce anemia and worm infection prevalence among schoolchildren (Adelman et al. 2008; Grillenberger et al., 2003).

Moreover, the SFP could give a child the potential to focus on his/her studies with limited health complications. This will allow children to fulfill their future desires and reach their fullest potential (Grillenberger et al., 2003; UNESCO, 2015; World Food Program, 2015). Also, Grillenberger et al. (2003) reveal that poor nutrition in early childhood can affect the cognitive development and learning capacity of a child. Additionally, Jukes et al. (2008) mention that poor health among children in primary schools could affect their educational outcomes, especially in areas regarding enrollment, attendance and completion. Despite the nutritional benefits associated with SFP, Jukes et al. (2008) noted that the SFP should not be seen as a substitute to some nutrition interventions such as mother and child health and supplementary and therapeutic feeding interventions. This is because the SFP does not directly target poor nutrition that occurs during pregnancy and at infancy and childhood, between 6 months to 2 years, which are the most important years to nourish a child’s cognitive development. However, according to Grillenberger et al. (2003), some of the challenges faced during pre-primary school that are related to hunger and malnutrition can be prevented through SFPs. In support of this, the WFP also indicated that SFPs should include nutritious meals to support an optimal growth in height and weight of children in schools.

According to WFP (2006), hunger is one of the most persistent and damaging problems faced by schoolchildren of today. Similarly, Adelman et al. (2008) states that hunger has an overwhelming impact on the performance of school children in school. This is because it affects the brain development and impedes the intellectual capacity of children (Bloom, 2009). According to many scientists and psychologists, acute and chronic hunger affects children’s ability to stay attentive and perform well academically in school (Bloom, 2009; Dauncey, 2009; Kazal, 2002; Shariff, Bond, & Johnson, 2000). Additionally, the WFP (2006) and Grantham (1988) highlight that hunger and poor education are interrelated in that a hungry child is less likely to attend school. According to the World Food Program (2015), factors such as the distance from home to school, child labor, running family errands before school, and poor quality of meals consumed at home can also contribute to poor classroom performance.

Del Rosso et al., (1999) also mentions that SFPs and other school-based nutrition and health programs motivate parents to enroll their children in school and help ensure that they attend school regularly. An increase in enrollment and attendance helps ensure positive academic performance of children in schools (UNESCO, 2015) which eventually promotes positive educational outcomes. A research conducted in Jamaica by Grantham-McGregor (1988) showed that providing breakfast to primary school children increased the attendance and performance of the children, especially among the stunted and vulnerable children. In addition, an analysis of the SFP in Burkina Faso revealed that schools with canteens or food pantries that provide food for the children during school hours were associated with increased enrollment, attendance and higher completion rate (WFP, 2006).

According to Nelson Mandela (1994) “education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the world. Concurringly, Sen (1999) believes that providing quality and adequate education for the youth is the only way to build a strong nation. People who are educated are better able to become responsible people in the world. Persons such as politicians, policymakers, scientists, and economists that a country depends on all need education in order to become successful (Food and Agricultural Organization, 2005; World Food Program, 2015). Education imparts training, knowledge, and skills that every person needs to become responsible in the society (Sen, 1999).

Ahmed (2002) and Edstrom et al. (2008) found that children who are educated are more likely to feed themselves and their immediate families when they reach adulthood. Additionally, Kristjansson et al. (2009) also mentioned that SFP guarantees limited challenges in school attendance and ensure that children who enroll in schools attend regularly. Furthermore, the SFP has promoted female youth education and reduced child labor in Malawi (Edstrom et al., 2008). Despite the massive developments made in education across developing countries coupled with a high increase in enrollment rate, many problems burden education systems across the world (UNESCO, 2011; WFP, 2015). Poverty and hunger have kept about million children across the world out of primary school, 53% and 47% of these children represent girls and boys respectively. Approximately 43% of these children are found in the Sub-Saharan African region. Furthermore, the school dropout rate is increasing in many developing countries. In Sub-Saharan region alone, the estimated number of children who dropped out of school increased from 29 million in 2008 to 31 million in 2010. In addition to this, the enrollment rate of school children in primary schools has slowed in the past decades (UNESCO, 2011; WFP, 2015).

According to the World Food Program (2004), the impact of the school feeding program on enrollment cannot be overemphasized. Kazianga et al. (2009) identified a positive relationship between the SFP and school enrollment, academic performance, and cognitive development. Similarly, Akanbi (2011) identified a significant increase in the attendance and enrollment rates in schools after the introduction of the SFP in Nigeria. Furthermore, a research conducted by Alderman et al. (2012) to assess the impacts of the SFP in Northern Uganda found a significant increase in school enrollment and attendance in primary schools as a result of the SFP in the first five years of implementation. Alderman et al. (2012) however mentioned that the impact of the SFP varies by location depending on the type of SFP implemented. The authors assessed how the implementation of the on-site SFP and the take-home ration differently impacts enrollment rates among girls in Northern Uganda. The authors identified that in schools where there is a combination of the on-site school feeding program and the take-home ration, enrollment rate among girls was sustained at thirty percent after the first year. However, in schools that have the on-site school feeding program, the increment rate recorded after the first year reverted to that recorded before the implementation of the SFP. In congruence with these results, Moore and Kunze (1994) also found a positive relationship between school enrollment and school canteens. They found that in Burkina Faso, schools with canteens have higher enrollment rates than schools without a canteen system. Moore and Kunze also found that school canteens have a positive influence on school attendance, academic performance, and educational success. These results, however, contradict the findings of Meme et. al (1998) that there is no difference in the enrollment rates among schools with canteens and schools without a canteen system in Kenya.

 

Many studies have investigated the impacts of the SFP on cognitive development and academic performance. Simeon and McGregor (1989) conducted a research on the effects of breakfast on the cognitive development of children between the ages of 9 and 10 years. The authors utilized a crossover design on three different groups comprised of children who were malnourished, stunted and non-stunted children. They found that serving breakfast for children is crucial to their cognitive development and the impact is even more significant among malnourished children. Similarly, a study conducted on two groups from four primary schools in Jamaica, a group of malnourished children which was the experimental group and another group with nourished children that served as a control group. The researchers performed four cognitive tests; verbal fluency, information processing, visual search and digit span on both groups after breakfast was provided to the experimental group. The authors found an improvement in the verbal fluency of the experiment group while there was no change in the control group. The authors then concluded that providing breakfast to children helps improve their cognitive development (Chandler et. al, 1995). This result is consistent with the results of Simeon and McGregor (1989). However, Lopez et al. (1999) found a contradictory result when they assessed the impacts of breakfast on the cognitive development of primary school children. The authors found that there is a disassociation between breakfast and cognitive development, specifically in problem-solving, visual memory and attention task of children. The authors concluded that in the short-run, missing breakfast does not affect the cognitive development of children. However, Husein (2014) mentioned that these researchers did not pay attention to the food that children ate the night before the research was conducted and the time they had that food as that could have influenced their findings.

Nonetheless, Ahmed (2004) have also found that iron and iodine nutrients are crucial for cognitive development in children. Del Rosso (1999) also emphasized that children who lack iodine and iron nutrients perform poorly in schools. A similar assertion was also made by Seshadri and Gopaldas (1989) that the provision of iron to children is crucial to their IQ development which eventually improves their performance in schools. The provision of micronutrients in the SFP supports the cognitive development and academic performance of children in primary schools. (Jacoby et. al 1996). This implies that the implementation of the SFP to malnourished children is a significant step to improving children’s academic performance and cognitive development.

Challenges of the School Feeding Program

According to Chelangat (2011), there are several factors that affect the successful implementation of the SFP in schools. Some of these factors include lack of adequate financial resources to sustain the program and problems associated with the policy and regulatory framework in charge of the SFP implementation. Various literature has been reviewed on the challenges facing the implementation of the SFP in schools.

Lack of Financial Resources. According to Koontz and Weirich (2001), the availability of financial resources is a major factor to consider when implementing a national program or policy. Just like any other national program, the successful implementation of a school feeding program depends on a strong financial commitment typically by the government and all other interested parties to fund the program. Ayieke (2005) also mentioned that national programs like the SFP should be included in the government fiscal budget spending for the year according to the national planning process. In addition to this, money allocated to the program must also be distributed to the appropriate institutions on a timely basis to support the program (Ayieke, 2005; Nkethia, 2011). However, according to Kootnz and Wierch (2001), the unstable source of funding for SFPs continue to be one of the major challenges of the program. Similarly, Olubayo et al (2013) also found that even though there are resources allocated to the spending on the SFP, there is no proper spending plan on how the funds are distributed in Nigeria. Similarly, Nkethia (2011) found that schools in Kenya that receive resources directly from the government to carry out the SFP reported delay in the timely distribution of funds to them affecting their ability to implement the SFP successfully and in a timely manner. As a result of this, some of the children in these schools are not able to receive adequate meals to sustain them. Furthermore, the few schools that provide enough food for the children are usually not able to meet the basic nutritional elements specified under the program (Nkethia, 2011).

Policy and Regulatory Network Problems. According to Chelangat (2011), in order to ensure a successful implementation of the SFP, there should be an institutional arrangement that is responsible for carrying out the program. The author also recommends that the institutions set to carry out the implementation of the program must have qualified and adequate staff to help in the implementation process and the system of operation must be transparent to the general public. In addition to this, WFP (2008) mentions that the implementation of the SFP must involve all stakeholders and the system must be monitored and evaluated. This according to Briggs (2008) will ensure a successful implementation of the program. However, a research conducted by Olubayo et al. (2013) on the SFP in Emuhaya County in Nigeria revealed that there is lack of adequate skilled personnel to successfully implement the program. The authors also mentioned that lack of transparency and effective communication between the policy networks in charge of the problem were found to be a major challenges associated with the SFP implementation. According to WFP (2013) and United Nations (2008), issues such as corruption, political instability and lack of proper monitoring and evaluation are also problems with the policy administrations that inhibit the successful implementation of the SFP in many developing countries.

Implementation of the School Feeding Program in Ghana.

The major partners involved in the implementation of the SFP in Ghana include, the government of Ghana, the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, the Ministry of Children, Gender and Social Protection, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, the WFP, School Enterprise Development organization, and the Netherlands Development Cooperation among others (GSFP Report, 2007-2010). In order to achieve the objectives of the program, each major partner performs specific responsibilities that help in carrying out the program. The Government of Ghana, which is made up of the Parliament and the Cabinet, is responsible for the establishment and passing of the SFP bill into law. The government also serves as the primary source of funding for the program. The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development are collaboratively responsible for the implementation of the SFP at the national level. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture also ensures that the program meets its intended agricultural outcomes. Furthermore, the Ministry of Finance and Economics ensures that money allocated for the program is distributed to the respective institutions responsible for carrying out the program whereas the Ministry of Children, Gender, and Social Protection is responsible for the monitoring and evaluation of the program (GSFP Report, 2007-2010). Moreover, at the regional level, Duah (2011) mentioned that the Regional Coordinating Councils (RCC) have also been created to coordinate the implementation of the program in all the ten regions in Ghana.

The RCCs are responsible for the planning and execution of the program in the various regions. In doing this, they are responsible to establish a steering committee that assists them in carrying out their roles. The District Implementation Committee (DIC) and School Implementation Committees (SIC), which are also established at the district and school level respectively, in collaboration with the District Assembly are responsible for the implementation of the program at the local level. The DICs oversee the planning and monitoring of the program in the schools where the program is implemented and the SICs oversee the implementation and supervision of the program in each school. The School Enterprise Development Organization and the Netherlands Development Cooperation are also responsible for the training of caterers and cooks involved in the implementation of the program. The caterers who are recruited for carrying out the program must meet some academic and food hygiene qualifications that will enable them to carry out their roles effectively towards meeting the goals of the program (GSFP Report, 2007-2010).

 

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