GHANA'S SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAM AND ITS IMPACT ON EDUCATION

 

Ghana's school feeding program and its impact on education.

Each nation over the globe endeavors to address the staggering social issues related with globalization and social change (Husein, 2014). The United Nations planned the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to fill in as a manual for member nations intending to address social issues. The initial two objectives of the SDG centers around the mitigation of extraordinary destitution and appetite. With these objectives, the United Nations planned for decreasing the number of inhabitants in individuals who experience the ill effects of yearning and neediness over the world by over half (United Nations, 2015b). As indicated by the World Food Program (WFP) (2015), one of the approaches to accomplishing the SDG 1 and 2 is by the execution of the school feeding program (SFP). Also, the United Nations Hunger Task Force (UNHTF) suggested that the execution of the SFP will help in lessening hunger among individuals and improve instructive results, explicitly on school enlistment, participation, finish and the scholastic performance of schoolchildren. Besides, the UNHTF likewise referenced that executing the SFP utilizing privately created merchandise as opposed to imported products will give job opportunities to numerous individuals in the nation which could in the end decrease the neediness rate. The SFP ought to incorporate micronutrients supplements, improved sanitation, deworming and standard adjusted weight control plans important to guarantee the development and advancement of schoolchildren (Husein, 2014; WFP, 2013). Numerous associations over the globe have received the UNHTF approach in actualizing SFPs (Del Rosso, 1999; Husein, 2014; NEPAD, 2002). The New Partnership on Africa Development (NEPAD), which was established in 2002 and part of the African Union and the European Union consolidated SFP and farming advancement (Husein, 2014). The target of this effort is to lessen lack of healthy sustenance among younger students and extend neighborhood interest for nourishment creation. This would improve nourishment security, increase job creation and extend agribusiness in Africa and other growing nations (NEPAD, 2002). Different associations and accomplices like the United Nations, WFP, the Government of the Netherlands, and the World Bank have likewise added to the execution of the school feeding program. There is an obvious input by the government of Ghana to elevate access to instruction in the nation. The 1992 constitution of Ghana determines the privilege of each kid in the nation in relation to essential training. It is accordingly basic as well as a duty of the administration to guarantee that obstructions to training are diminished and citizens’ access education (Husein, 2014). Therefore, the administration has actualized different approach systems and structures to elevate access to training for all. A portion of these measures incorporate the Capitation Grant, Free and Compulsory Education, Education for All, Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy, and Education Strategic Plan in 2003-2015 (Ghana Government, 2015; Husein, 2014). In spite of the critical commitments of these endeavors towards access to education, participation and finishing were still low among younger students (Ghana Government, 2015; Husein, 2014). As indicated by Husein (2014) and WFP (2013), yearning and neediness are issues that influence school participation and completion among younger students. Besides, yearning and neediness can unfavorably influence the scholastic performance of younger students (Yendaw and Dayour, 2014; Osei-Fosu, 2011; UNESCO, 2013). In light of this, the Government of Ghana presented the SFP in the year 2005 to reduce hunger which is a prevention to access training and scholarly exhibitions of schoolchildren. As indicated by NEPAD (2002), Ghana is the first of the 10 nations in Sub-Saharan Africa that executed the SFP as per rules set by NEPAD. The Ghana School Feeding Program (GSFP) was begun as an experimental run program in 2005 and executed the nation over in the year 2006 (NEPAD, 2002; Husein, 2014). The momentary destinations of the GSFP are to lighten craving and lack of healthy sustenance among schoolchildren, to energize nearby nourishment creation just as advance school enlistment, participation, and finish. The long haul advantage of the program is to add to the general destitution decrease through an expansion in work opportunities for individuals and the advancement of nourishment security (Ghana Government, 2015). Since the beginning of the program, inclusion has expanded from 1.04 million school children in 2010 to 1.7 million schoolchildren in 2014 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2015). The legislature of Ghana has picked up help from the WFP, the Netherlands Government and other global associations for actualizing the program in numerous country networks. Furthermore, the WFP helped the administration of Ghana by giving school meals to 122,000 schoolchildren in 304 schools in 2015 (WFP, 2015). In addition, the UNHTF has additionally upheld the program by giving seven proposals that fill in as a rule in the effective utilisation of the program.

As per WFP (2006), hunger is one of the most tenacious and harming issues suffered by schoolchildren of today. Likewise, Adelman et al. (2008) states that hunger overwhelmingly affects the performance of younger students in school. This is on the grounds that it influences the mental health and hinders the scholarly limit of kids (Bloom, 2009). As indicated by numerous researchers and therapists, intense and interminable starvation influences kids' capacity to remain mindful and perform well scholastically in school (Bloom, 2009; Dauncey, 2009; Kazal, 2002; Shariff, Bond, and Johnson, 2000). Also, the WFP (2006) and Grantham (1988) feature that starvation and poor instruction are interrelated in that a ravenous kid is less inclined to go to class. As per the World Food Program (2015), factors, for example, factors such as the distance from home to school, child labor, running family errands before school, and poor quality of food consumed at home can also contribute to poor academic performance.

Del Rosso et al., (1999) additionally specifies that SFPs and other school-based sustenance and wellbeing projects rouse guardians to enlist their youngsters in school and help guarantee that they go to class consistently. An expansion in enlistment and participation guarantees positive scholarly execution of kids in schools (UNESCO, 2015) which in the long run advances positive instructive results. An exploration led in Jamaica by Grantham-McGregor (1988) demonstrated that giving breakfast to elementary younger students expanded the participation and execution of the youngsters, particularly among the hindered and helpless kids. Furthermore, an investigation of the SFP in Burkina Faso uncovered that schools with containers or nourishment storerooms that give nourishment to the youngsters during school hours were related with expanded enlistment, participation and higher fruition rate (WFP, 2006). Regardless of the enormous improvements made in instruction crosswise over developing nations combined with a high increase in enlistment rate, numerous issues trouble training frameworks over the world (UNESCO, 2011; WFP, 2015). Destitution and starvation have kept around 67 million youngsters over the world out of grade school, 53% and 47% of these kids speak to young ladies and young men individually. Roughly 43% of these youngsters are found in the Sub-Saharan African district. Besides, the school dropout rate is expanding in numerous developing nations. In Sub-Saharan district alone, the assessed number of kids who dropped out of school expanded from 29 million of every 2008 to 31 million in 2010. What's more, the enlistment pace of younger students in grade schools has eased back in the previous decade (UNESCO, 2011; WFP, 2015).

As indicated by World Food Program (2015), SFPs upgrade sustenance and wellbeing of kids in schools. An upgraded sustenance blocks unhealthiness, diabetes, and dismalness among youngsters. Correspondingly, UNESCO (2015) reports that SFPs destroy extreme craving among younger students as well as more significantly upgrade youngster development and improvement. As determined by the WFP, dishes given under the school feeding program ought to contain micronutrients, and kilocalories vital for solid development and improvement. As indicated by World Health Organization (2015), micronutrients insufficiencies are the main source of diseases that are across board among kids particularly in developing nations. The mortality and bleakness rate among youngsters younger than five raised to over 90% and 80% individually from 1990 to 2015 (WHO, 2015). Likewise, in Nigeria, the significant reasons for mortality among kids have been related with ailing health, looseness of the bowels, intestinal sickness, immunization preventable illnesses and respiratory contaminations (Nigeria Federal Ministry of Education, 2007). In Nigeria, youth diseases represent 49% of school non-attendance among younger students. The SFP is along these lines actualized to address such issues and advance child development. Moreover, an expansion in the micronutrient especially in nutrients and irons are fundamental to the psychological improvement and learning limit of schoolchildren (Bloom, 2009; Dauncey, 2009; Kazal, 2002; Shariff, Bond, and Johnson, 2000). Additionally, proof backing that iron insufficiency and pallor are the significant reasons for grimness among younger students, which influence the greater part of the number of inhabitants in younger students over the globe (Grillenberger et al., 2003; Kristjansson et al., 2009). Ongoing examinations led in Kenya and Uganda on the effects of SFP, notwithstanding, uncover that the SFPs essentially decrease paleness and worm disease pervasiveness among schoolchildren (Adelman et al. 2008; Grillenberger et al., 2003).

PROBLEM

After the institution of the Millennium Development Goals by the United Nations to address social problems across the globe, many countries including Ghana have employed various approaches towards realizing the MDG’s (United Nations, 2015). The introduction of the SFP in Ghana has brought about the raise in access to education, attendance and completion among schoolchildren by reducing hunger (Husein, 2014; Yendaw & Dayour, 2014; Osei-Fosu, 2011; UNESCO, 2013). Regardless of the gains that the SFP has made on education, some scholars have found the program to be ineffective in achieving its stated goals (Agyeman, 2011). According to Agyeman (2011), the departure of many partners from the program has weakened the general coverage of the program as financial support has been reduced. Furthermore, although there are scarce findings that have been conducted to measure the impact of the SFP on enrollment, attendance, and completion in Ghana (Husein, 2014), there is no specific study that focuses on enrollment, attendance, and retention in the Akyem Swedru municipality of the Eastern Region of Ghana. There is, therefore, the need for an investigation that will fill the gap in the literature and provide specific information on the impacts of the SFP on educational outcomes among schoolchildren in Akyem Swedru municipality.

Importance of School Feeding Program

According to World Food Program (2015), SFPs enhance nutrition and health of children in schools. An enhanced nutrition precludes malnutrition, diabetes, and morbidity among children. Similarly, UNESCO (2015) reports that SFPs not only eradicate severe hunger among school children but more importantly enhance child growth and development. As specified by the WFP, meals provided under the school feeding program should contain micronutrient, and kilocalories necessary for healthy growth and development. According to World Health Organization (2015), micronutrient deficiencies are the leading cause of infections that are widespread among children especially in developing countries. The mortality and morbidity rate among children under the age of five escalated to over 90% and 80% respectively from 1990 to 2015 (WHO, 2015). Also, in Nigeria, the major causes of mortality among children have been associated with malnutrition, diarrhea, malaria, vaccine-preventable diseases and respiratory infections (Nigeria Federal Ministry of Education, 2007). In Nigeria, childhood illnesses account for 49% of school absenteeism among school children. The SFP is therefore implemented to address such issues and promote child growth.

Furthermore, an increase in the micronutrient particularly in vitamins and irons are essential to the cognitive development and learning capacity of schoolchildren (Bloom, 2009; Dauncey, 2009; Kazal, 2002; Shariff, Bond, & Johnson, 2000). Similarly, evidence supports that iron deficiency and anemia are the major causes of morbidity among school children, which affect more than half of the population of school children across the globe (Grillenberger et al., 2003; Kristjansson et al., 2009). Recent studies conducted in Kenya and Uganda on the impacts of SFP, however, reveal that the SFPs significantly reduce anemia and worm infection prevalence among schoolchildren (Adelman et al. 2008; Grillenberger et al., 2003).

Moreover, the SFP could give a child the potential to focus on his/her studies with limited health complications. This will allow children to fulfill their future desires and reach their fullest potential (Grillenberger et al., 2003; UNESCO, 2015; World Food Program, 2015). Also, Grillenberger et al. (2003) reveal that poor nutrition in early childhood can affect the cognitive development and learning capacity of a child. Additionally, Jukes et al. (2008) mention that poor health among children in primary schools could affect their educational outcomes, especially in areas regarding enrollment, attendance and completion. Despite the nutritional benefits associated with SFP, Jukes et al. (2008) noted that the SFP should not be seen as a substitute to some nutrition interventions such as mother and child health and supplementary and therapeutic feeding interventions. This is because the SFP does not directly target poor nutrition that occurs during pregnancy and at infancy and childhood, between 6 months to 2 years, which are the most important years to nourish a child’s cognitive development. However, according to Grillenberger et al. (2003), some of the challenges faced during pre-primary school that are related to hunger and malnutrition can be prevented through SFPs. In support of this, the WFP also indicated that SFPs should include nutritious meals to support an optimal growth in height and weight of children in schools.

According to WFP (2006), hunger is one of the most persistent and damaging problems faced by schoolchildren of today. Similarly, Adelman et al. (2008) states that hunger has an overwhelming impact on the performance of school children in school. This is because it affects the brain development and impedes the intellectual capacity of children (Bloom, 2009). According to many scientists and psychologists, acute and chronic hunger affects children’s ability to stay attentive and perform well academically in school (Bloom, 2009; Dauncey, 2009; Kazal, 2002; Shariff, Bond, & Johnson, 2000). Additionally, the WFP (2006) and Grantham (1988) highlight that hunger and poor education are interrelated in that a hungry child is less likely to attend school. According to the World Food Program (2015), factors such as the distance from home to school, child labor, running family errands before school, and poor quality of meals consumed at home can also contribute to poor classroom performance.

Del Rosso et al., (1999) also mentions that SFPs and other school-based nutrition and health programs motivate parents to enroll their children in school and help ensure that they attend school regularly. An increase in enrollment and attendance helps ensure positive academic performance of children in schools (UNESCO, 2015) which eventually promotes positive educational outcomes. A research conducted in Jamaica by Grantham-McGregor (1988) showed that providing breakfast to primary school children increased the attendance and performance of the children, especially among the stunted and vulnerable children. In addition, an analysis of the SFP in Burkina Faso revealed that schools with canteens or food pantries that provide food for the children during school hours were associated with increased enrollment, attendance and higher completion rate (WFP, 2006).

According to Nelson Mandela (1994) “education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the world. Concurringly, Sen (1999) believes that providing quality and adequate education for the youth is the only way to build a strong nation. People who are educated are better able to become responsible people in the world. Persons such as politicians, policymakers, scientists, and economists that a country depends on all need education in order to become successful (Food and Agricultural Organization, 2005; World Food Program, 2015). Education imparts training, knowledge, and skills that every person needs to become responsible in the society (Sen, 1999).

Ahmed (2002) and Edstrom et al. (2008) found that children who are educated are more likely to feed themselves and their immediate families when they reach adulthood. Additionally, Kristjansson et al. (2009) also mentioned that SFP guarantees limited challenges in school attendance and ensure that children who enroll in schools attend regularly. Furthermore, the SFP has promoted female youth education and reduced child labor in Malawi (Edstrom et al., 2008). Despite the massive developments made in education across developing countries coupled with a high increase in enrollment rate, many problems burden education systems across the world (UNESCO, 2011; WFP, 2015). Poverty and hunger have kept about million children across the world out of primary school, 53% and 47% of these children represent girls and boys respectively. Approximately 43% of these children are found in the Sub-Saharan African region. Furthermore, the school dropout rate is increasing in many developing countries. In Sub-Saharan region alone, the estimated number of children who dropped out of school increased from 29 million in 2008 to 31 million in 2010. In addition to this, the enrollment rate of school children in primary schools has slowed in the past decades (UNESCO, 2011; WFP, 2015).

According to the World Food Program (2004), the impact of the school feeding program on enrollment cannot be overemphasized. Kazianga et al. (2009) identified a positive relationship between the SFP and school enrollment, academic performance, and cognitive development. Similarly, Akanbi (2011) identified a significant increase in the attendance and enrollment rates in schools after the introduction of the SFP in Nigeria. Furthermore, a research conducted by Alderman et al. (2012) to assess the impacts of the SFP in Northern Uganda found a significant increase in school enrollment and attendance in primary schools as a result of the SFP in the first five years of implementation. Alderman et al. (2012) however mentioned that the impact of the SFP varies by location depending on the type of SFP implemented. The authors assessed how the implementation of the on-site SFP and the take-home ration differently impacts enrollment rates among girls in Northern Uganda. The authors identified that in schools where there is a combination of the on-site school feeding program and the take-home ration, enrollment rate among girls was sustained at thirty percent after the first year. However, in schools that have the on-site school feeding program, the increment rate recorded after the first year reverted to that recorded before the implementation of the SFP. In congruence with these results, Moore and Kunze (1994) also found a positive relationship between school enrollment and school canteens. They found that in Burkina Faso, schools with canteens have higher enrollment rates than schools without a canteen system. Moore and Kunze also found that school canteens have a positive influence on school attendance, academic performance, and educational success. These results, however, contradict the findings of Meme et. al (1998) that there is no difference in the enrollment rates among schools with canteens and schools without a canteen system in Kenya.

 

Many studies have investigated the impacts of the SFP on cognitive development and academic performance. Simeon and McGregor (1989) conducted a research on the effects of breakfast on the cognitive development of children between the ages of 9 and 10 years. The authors utilized a crossover design on three different groups comprised of children who were malnourished, stunted and non-stunted children. They found that serving breakfast for children is crucial to their cognitive development and the impact is even more significant among malnourished children. Similarly, a study conducted on two groups from four primary schools in Jamaica, a group of malnourished children which was the experimental group and another group with nourished children that served as a control group. The researchers performed four cognitive tests; verbal fluency, information processing, visual search and digit span on both groups after breakfast was provided to the experimental group. The authors found an improvement in the verbal fluency of the experiment group while there was no change in the control group. The authors then concluded that providing breakfast to children helps improve their cognitive development (Chandler et. al, 1995). This result is consistent with the results of Simeon and McGregor (1989). However, Lopez et al. (1999) found a contradictory result when they assessed the impacts of breakfast on the cognitive development of primary school children. The authors found that there is a disassociation between breakfast and cognitive development, specifically in problem-solving, visual memory and attention task of children. The authors concluded that in the short-run, missing breakfast does not affect the cognitive development of children. However, Husein (2014) mentioned that these researchers did not pay attention to the food that children ate the night before the research was conducted and the time they had that food as that could have influenced their findings.

Nonetheless, Ahmed (2004) have also found that iron and iodine nutrients are crucial for cognitive development in children. Del Rosso (1999) also emphasized that children who lack iodine and iron nutrients perform poorly in schools. A similar assertion was also made by Seshadri and Gopaldas (1989) that the provision of iron to children is crucial to their IQ development which eventually improves their performance in schools. The provision of micronutrients in the SFP supports the cognitive development and academic performance of children in primary schools. (Jacoby et. al 1996). This implies that the implementation of the SFP to malnourished children is a significant step to improving children’s academic performance and cognitive development.

Challenges of the School Feeding Program

According to Chelangat (2011), there are several factors that affect the successful implementation of the SFP in schools. Some of these factors include lack of adequate financial resources to sustain the program and problems associated with the policy and regulatory framework in charge of the SFP implementation. Various literature has been reviewed on the challenges facing the implementation of the SFP in schools.

Lack of Financial Resources. According to Koontz and Weirich (2001), the availability of financial resources is a major factor to consider when implementing a national program or policy. Just like any other national program, the successful implementation of a school feeding program depends on a strong financial commitment typically by the government and all other interested parties to fund the program. Ayieke (2005) also mentioned that national programs like the SFP should be included in the government fiscal budget spending for the year according to the national planning process. In addition to this, money allocated to the program must also be distributed to the appropriate institutions on a timely basis to support the program (Ayieke, 2005; Nkethia, 2011). However, according to Kootnz and Wierch (2001), the unstable source of funding for SFPs continue to be one of the major challenges of the program. Similarly, Olubayo et al (2013) also found that even though there are resources allocated to the spending on the SFP, there is no proper spending plan on how the funds are distributed in Nigeria. Similarly, Nkethia (2011) found that schools in Kenya that receive resources directly from the government to carry out the SFP reported delay in the timely distribution of funds to them affecting their ability to implement the SFP successfully and in a timely manner. As a result of this, some of the children in these schools are not able to receive adequate meals to sustain them. Furthermore, the few schools that provide enough food for the children are usually not able to meet the basic nutritional elements specified under the program (Nkethia, 2011).

Policy and Regulatory Network Problems. According to Chelangat (2011), in order to ensure a successful implementation of the SFP, there should be an institutional arrangement that is responsible for carrying out the program. The author also recommends that the institutions set to carry out the implementation of the program must have qualified and adequate staff to help in the implementation process and the system of operation must be transparent to the general public. In addition to this, WFP (2008) mentions that the implementation of the SFP must involve all stakeholders and the system must be monitored and evaluated. This according to Briggs (2008) will ensure a successful implementation of the program. However, a research conducted by Olubayo et al. (2013) on the SFP in Emuhaya County in Nigeria revealed that there is lack of adequate skilled personnel to successfully implement the program. The authors also mentioned that lack of transparency and effective communication between the policy networks in charge of the problem were found to be a major challenges associated with the SFP implementation. According to WFP (2013) and United Nations (2008), issues such as corruption, political instability and lack of proper monitoring and evaluation are also problems with the policy administrations that inhibit the successful implementation of the SFP in many developing countries.

Implementation of the School Feeding Program in Ghana.

The major partners involved in the implementation of the SFP in Ghana include, the government of Ghana, the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, the Ministry of Children, Gender and Social Protection, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, the WFP, School Enterprise Development organization, and the Netherlands Development Cooperation among others (GSFP Report, 2007-2010). In order to achieve the objectives of the program, each major partner performs specific responsibilities that help in carrying out the program. The Government of Ghana, which is made up of the Parliament and the Cabinet, is responsible for the establishment and passing of the SFP bill into law. The government also serves as the primary source of funding for the program. The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development are collaboratively responsible for the implementation of the SFP at the national level. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture also ensures that the program meets its intended agricultural outcomes. Furthermore, the Ministry of Finance and Economics ensures that money allocated for the program is distributed to the respective institutions responsible for carrying out the program whereas the Ministry of Children, Gender, and Social Protection is responsible for the monitoring and evaluation of the program (GSFP Report, 2007-2010). Moreover, at the regional level, Duah (2011) mentioned that the Regional Coordinating Councils (RCC) have also been created to coordinate the implementation of the program in all the ten regions in Ghana.

The RCCs are responsible for the planning and execution of the program in the various regions. In doing this, they are responsible to establish a steering committee that assists them in carrying out their roles. The District Implementation Committee (DIC) and School Implementation Committees (SIC), which are also established at the district and school level respectively, in collaboration with the District Assembly are responsible for the implementation of the program at the local level. The DICs oversee the planning and monitoring of the program in the schools where the program is implemented and the SICs oversee the implementation and supervision of the program in each school. The School Enterprise Development Organization and the Netherlands Development Cooperation are also responsible for the training of caterers and cooks involved in the implementation of the program. The caterers who are recruited for carrying out the program must meet some academic and food hygiene qualifications that will enable them to carry out their roles effectively towards meeting the goals of the program (GSFP Report, 2007-2010).

 

Read More

PUBLIC RELATIONS AS A TOOL IN ATTAINING ORGANISATIONAL GOALS

 

Public Relations as a tool in attaining organisational goals.

Public relations can be considered and defined from the perspectives of public relations campaigns. Here, a public relations campaign is thought of as the efforts a firm puts into the creation and maintenance of relationships that are socially acceptable through the application of objectives that based on evidence and presented through the adoption of communication strategies and through measuring of these outcomes (Kendall, 1996). Rinrattanakorn (2016) posits that the objectives of campaigns are targeted at the achievement of certain firm purposes and for that matter public relations campaigns conducted with the aim of improving the situation or to solve an issue in an organisation. 

In Africa, scholars and researchers have proposed and advocated the use of public relations in addressing a wide range of challenges.  On the menace of campus cult, Akande (2001) called for the adoption of public relations techniques that are in line with McGregor’s carrot and stick approach as the tool for addressing the menace. Igben (2001) whiles proposing solutions for perennial crisis in Nigerian Universities believed that positioning public relations among other recommendations to management was the way to go. In a similar study, Salau (2001) made a call for the strategic placement and professional training for public relations professionals in other to make such professional effective in their operations in the various higher institutions in Nigeria. Arguments in favour of public relations among African scholars did not leave out the relevant of public relations in the operations of businesses. In business public relations has been seen as a tool relevant to the needs of business, especially for ensuring customer satisfaction and exceeding the expectations of customers as well as for the purpose of stimulating policies that are deemed advantageous (Ogudoro, 2001).

Public relations as stated earlier is not being practiced for the fun of it rather it is aimed at achieving targeted objects which are necessary for the growth of the organisation through improved relationships with the publics. There is therefore the need to be able to evaluate and measure the impact of executed public relations strategies in various organisations. Rinrattanakorn (2016) for instance sees the evaluation of a public relations campaign as encompassing the systematic measurement of the campaign. It is not until when practitioners in the field of public relations are able to measure the results of their public relations activities against the objectives, which such activities targeted that practitioners are able to provide accurate answers to their clients regarding the success of their public relations campaigns.

The need for the evaluation of public relations campaign is as a result of certain factors including pressure to give clients with real returns on public relations campaigns which is not only limited to the coverage levels but captures the impact of public relations campaigns as well. In line with this, McNamara (2014) noted that there are several factors accounting for the need for putting in place standards for the evaluation and measurement of public relations.

PROBLEM

Even though Public Relations performs important communication functions in the organisation there is still doubt that Public Relations contributes to realizing organisational goals with respect to image (Yeo &Sriramesh 2009). As organisations become complex and try to survive in an increasingly complex, interdependent and turbulent world (Yeo &Sriramesh, 2009), Public Relations becomes more and more essential because relationships with stakeholder publics become even more important boosting organisational image. The purpose of the study is to explore how the contribution of Public Relations (establishing mutually beneficial relationship between an organisation and its publics and attaining good corporate reputation) goes to assist the Ghana Revenue Authority achieve its organisational goals (responsive customer service, professional and credible organisation, optimum revenue collection in a cost effective manner and a voluntary tax environment to ensure voluntary compliance) (GRA, 2018).

Public relations describes the various methods a company uses to disseminate messages about its products, services, or overall image to its customers, employees, stockholders, suppliers, or other interested members of the community. The point of public relations is to make the public think favorably about the company and its offerings. Commonly used tools of public relations include news releases, press conferences, speaking engagements, and community service programs.

Although advertising is closely related to public relations as it too is concerned with promoting and gaining public acceptance for the company's products the goal of advertising is generating sales, while the goal of public relations is generating good will. The effect of good public relations is to lessen the gap between how an organization sees itself and how others outside the organization perceive it.

Public relations involves two-way communication between an organization and its public. It requires listening to the constituencies on which an organization depends as well as analyzing and understanding the attitudes and behaviors of those audiences. Only then can an organization undertake an effective public relations campaign.

Many small business owners elect to handle the public relations activities for their own companies, while others choose to hire a public relations specialist. Managers of somewhat larger firms, on the other hand, frequently contract with external public relations or advertising agencies to enhance their corporate image. However, whatever option is chosen, the head of a company is ultimately responsible for its public relations.

Some of the main goals of public relations are to create, maintain, and protect the organization's reputation, enhance its prestige, and present a favorable image. Studies have shown that consumers often base their purchase decisions on a company's reputation, so public relations can have a definite impact on sales and revenue. Public relations can be an effective part of a company's overall marketing strategy. In the case of a for-profit company, public relations and marketing should be coordinated to be sure they are working to achieve the same objectives.

Another major public relations goal is to create good will for the organization. This involves such functions as employee relations, stockholder and investor relations, media relations, and community relations. Public relations may function to educate certain audiences about many things relevant to the organization including the business in general, new legislation, and how to use a particular product as well as to overcome misconceptions and prejudices. For example, a nonprofit organization may attempt to educate the public regarding a certain point of view, while trade associations may undertake educational programs regarding particular industries and their products and practices.  Public relations is a multifaceted activity involving different audiences as well as different types of organizations, all with different goals and objectives. As a result, there are several specific areas of public relations.

Product public relations

Public relations and marketing work together closely when it comes to promoting a new or existing product or service. Public relations plays an important role in new product introductions by creating awareness, differentiating the product from other similar products, and even changing consumer behavior. Public relations can help introduce new products through staging a variety of special events and handling sensitive situations. For example, when the Prince Matchabelli division of Chesebrough-Pond's USA introduced a new men's cologne, there were twenty-one other men's fragrances being introduced that year. To differentiate its new offering, called Hero, Prince Matchabelli created a National Hero Awards Program honoring authentic male heroes and enlisted the participation of Big Brothers/Big Sisters of America to lend credibility to the program. Similarly, when Coleco introduced its Cabbage Patch Kids dolls, public relations helped increase awareness through licensed tie-in products, trade show exhibits, press parties, and even window displays in Cartier jewelry stores.

Public relations is often called on to give existing products and services a boost by creating or renewing visibility. For example, the California Raisins Advisory Board organized a national tour featuring live performances by the California Dancing Raisins to maintain interest in raisins during a summer-long advertising hiatus. The tour generated national and local publicity through media events, advance publicity, trade promotions, and media interviews with performer Ray Charles. Other public relations programs for existing products involve stimulating secondary demand—as when Campbell Soup Co. increased overall demand for soup by publishing a recipe booklet—or identifying new uses for the product. Public relations can interest the media in familiar products and services in a number of ways, including holding seminars for journalists, staging a special media day, and supplying the media with printed materials ranging from "backgrounders" (in-depth news releases) to booklets and brochures. Changes in existing products offer additional public relations opportunities to focus consumers' attention. An effective public relations campaign can help to properly position a product and overcome negative perceptions on the part of the general public.

Employee relations

Employees are one of the most important audiences a company has, and an ongoing public relations program is necessary to maintain employee good will as well as to uphold the company's image and reputation among its employees. The essence of a good employee relations program is keeping employees informed and providing them with channels of communication to upper levels of management. Bechtel Group, a privately held complex of operating companies, published an annual report for its employees to keep them informed about the company's operations. The company used surveys to determine what information employees considered useful. A range of other communication devices were used, including a monthly tabloid and magazine, a quarterly video magazine, local newsletters, bulletin boards, a call-in telephone service, and "brown bag" lunches where live presentations were made about the company. Suggestion systems are another effective way to improve employee-management communications.

Other public relations programs focusing on employees include training them as company public relations representatives; explaining benefits programs to them; offering them educational, volunteer, and citizenship opportunities; and staging special events such as picnics or open houses for them. Other programs can improve performance and increase employee pride and motivation. Public relations can also play a role in recruiting new employees; handling reorganizations, relocations, and mergers; and resolving labor disputes.

Financial relations

Financial relations involves communicating not only with a company's stockholders, but also with the wider community of financial analysts and potential investors. An effective investor relations plan can increase the value of a company's stock and make it easier to raise additional capital. In some cases, special meetings with financial analysts are necessary to overcome adverse publicity, negative perceptions about a company, or investor indifference. Such meetings may take the form of full-day briefings, formal presentations, or luncheon meetings. A tour of a company's facilities may help generate interest among the financial community. Mailings and ongoing communications can help a company achieve visibility among potential investors and financial analysts.

Annual reports and stockholder meetings are the two most important public relations tools for maintaining good investor relations. Some companies hold regional or quarterly meetings in addition to the usual annual meeting. Other companies reach more stockholders by moving the location of their annual meeting from city to city. Annual reports can be complemented by quarterly reports and dividend check inserts. Companies that wish to provide additional communications with stockholders may send them a newsletter or company magazine. Personal letters to new stockholders and a quick response to inquiries insure an additional measure of goodwill.

Community relations

A comprehensive, ongoing community relations program can help virtually any organization achieve visibility as a good community citizen and gain the good will of the community in which it operates. Banks, utilities, radio and television stations, and major retailers are some of the types of organizations most likely to have ongoing programs that might include supporting urban renewal, performing arts programs, social and educational programs, children's programs, community organizations, and construction projects. On a more limited scale, small businesses may achieve community visibility by sponsoring local sports teams or other events. Support may be financial or take the form of employee participation.

Organizations have the opportunity to improve good will and demonstrate a commitment to their communities when they open new offices, expand facilities, and open new factories. One company increased community awareness of its presence by converting a vacant building into a permanent meeting place. Another company built its new headquarters in an abandoned high school that it renovated. One of the more sensitive areas of community relations involves plant closings. A well-planned public relations campaign, combined with appropriate actions, can alleviate the tensions that such closings cause. Some elements of such a campaign might include offering special programs to laid-off workers, informing employees directly about proposed closings, and controlling rumors through candid and direct communications to the community and employees.

Organizations conduct a variety of special programs to improve community relations, including providing employee volunteers to work on community projects, sponsoring educational and literacy programs, staging open houses and conducting plant tours, celebrating anniversaries, and mounting special exhibits. Organizations are recognized as good community citizens when they support programs that improve the quality of life in their community, including crime prevention, employment, environmental programs, clean-up and beautification, recycling, and restoration.

Crisis communications

Public relations practitioners become heavily involved in crisis communications whenever there is a major accident or natural disaster affecting an organization and its community. Other types of crises involve bankruptcy, product failures, and management wrongdoing. In some cases, crises call for an organization to become involved in helping potential victims; in other cases, the crisis may require rebuilding an organization's image. In any case, experts recommend that business owners prepare a plan in advance to deal with potential crises in an honest and forthright manner. The main objective of such a plan is to provide accurate information quickly in order to reduce uncertainty. After the San Francisco earthquake of 1989, for example, the Bank of America utilized its public relations department to quickly establish communications with customers, the financial community, the media, and offices in 45 countries to assure them the bank was still operating.

Government and political relations

 Public relations in the political arena covers a wide range of activities, including staging debates, holding seminars for government leaders, influencing proposed legislation, and testifying before a congressional committee. Political candidates engage in public relations, as do government agencies at the federal, state, and local levels.

Trade associations and other types of organizations attempt to block unfavorable legislation and support favorable legislation in a number of ways. The liquor industry in California helped defeat a proposed tax increase by taking charge of the debate early, winning endorsements, recruiting spokespersons, and cultivating grassroots support. A speakers’ bureau trained some 240 industry volunteers, and key messages were communicated to the public through printed materials and radio and television commercials.

Public relations in the public interest

Organizations attempt to generate good will and position themselves as responsible citizens through a variety of programs conducted in the public interest. Some examples are environmental programs (including water and energy conservation) and antipollution programs. A wide range of nonprofit organizations, healthcare providers, and other businesses and industries sponsors health and medical programs. These range from encouraging other companies to develop AIDS-in-the-workplace policies to the American Cancer Society's Great American Smokeout. Other programs offer political education, leadership and self-improvement, recreational activities, contests, and safety instruction.

Consumer education

Organizations have undertaken a variety of programs to educate consumers, building good will and helping avoid misunderstandings in the process. Opportunities for educating consumers might include sponsoring television and radio programs, producing manuals and other printed materials, producing materials for classroom use, and releasing the results of surveys. In addition to focusing on specific issues or industries, educational programs may seek to inform consumers about economic matters and business in general.

Other public relations programs

Other types of programs that fall under the umbrella of public relations include corporate identity programs, ranging from name changes and new trademarks to changing a company's overall image. Special events may be held to call attention to an organization and focus the public's good will. These include anniversary celebrations, events related to trade shows, special exhibits, or fairs and festivals. Speakers bureaus and celebrity spokespersons are effective public relations tools for communicating an organization's point of view. Speakers bureaus may be organized by a trade association or an individual company. The face-to-face communication that speakers can deliver is often more effective than messages carried by printed materials, especially when the target audience is small and clearly defined.

Read More

BILLBOARD ADVERTISING AND CONSUMER PATRONAGE: AN OVERVIEW.

 

Billboard advertising and consumer patronage: an overview.

When one starts a business or is running a business, one needs to make people aware. Promotion is important for any type of business to let others know about the business. Any type of business, whether it is run online or offline requires customers so that it can experience a good business turnaround (Trand, 2014). However, the only means of reaching customers is advertising. This is why advertising is important for a business. Once a business advertises about its products and services, it is able to run in a competitive environment (Trand, 2014).

Advertising is unique to your brand. For some companies, they may have the marketing budget to support broad campaigns through every outlet (Ibid). For most companies though, particularly the many local and regional businesses we work with, it is a careful balance to and the right place for your advertising dollars (Ibid). You want to minimize wasted money while maximizing efficiency (Trand, 2014). Billboards are significantly cheaper than television and traditional media advertising (Simons, 2016). Although there are many different forms of advertising, out of home advertising billboards remain one of the tried and true methods of grabbing customers’ attention and reaching a targeted geographic audience (Simons, 2016).

Advertising is important for every aspect of a business. It plays an imperative role for both manufacturers and consumers (Kahn, 2016). Advertising is important for the business on the whole as it lets the business gain more customers, thereby increasing business turnaround. Advertising can be achieved using various media like television, newspapers, radio, banners, pamphlets, and websites (Kahn, 2016). Each advertising media has its own pros and cons and one must evaluate all of them before selecting a particular media. The main thing that needs to be considered is that the advertising medium selected must be able to reach a large number of customers (Kahn, 2016). Generally, businesses hire the services of an advertising agency to promote their products and services. The advertising agency selected by the business owner can handle the entire advertisement campaign and all aspects of the company’s marketing. This way the businessmen can focus on other aspects of the business and need not worry about how to attract more customers (Kahn, 2016). The advertising agency handles the entire process of promoting a product or service by breaking it down into stages and then working on each stage. These stages are described below: 

Market analysis- The advertising agency first studies the market to know the target audience and the needs of the target audience. The Small Business Marketing Consultant at the advertising agency also studies the competition present in the market to know how the advertising campaign will do in the market. This is done to know whether the product or service will be able to stand in the competition or not.

Selecting the advertising media- Once the advertising agency has decided to go ahead with the advertising campaign, it starts to select the advertising media. The small business marketing consultant at the agency studies the benefits and drawbacks of all the available media like television, radio, newspaper, and internet. On the basis of their comparison, the consultants select the media which they feel will do justice to the advertising campaign.

Cost-benefit analysis- The small business marketing consultant at the advertising agency then performs a cost benefit analysis. This analysis is performed for two reasons. The first is to decide whether the advertising campaign will benefit the business in the sense will advertising help to earn good business turnaround. If yes, then advertising agency starts with an advertising campaign. The other reason why a cost benefit analysis is done is to check whether the cost of promoting a product or service using a particular advertising media justifies the benefits it reaps. This is done to make sure that advertising using a particular media benefits the business by helping it get more customers and thus high business turnaround.

Deciding the mode of advertisement- The market consultant at the advertising agency then decides about how the message will be conveyed to the target audience. The advertising agency may use simple pamphlets or banners to let the customers know about the product or service. On the other hand, the advertising agency may film an attractive video to make sure that the target audience is conveyed the message.

Creating the actual advertisement- Once all aspects are looked into, the Small Business Marketing Consultant at the advertising agency proceeds with the creation of the advertisement. For this, the consultant may take the help of experts at the advertising agency or he may seek the help of professionals from outside. In either case, the end result is the creation of an attractive and appealing advertisement by the advertising agency. The advertising agency charges for the completion of the advertising campaign. So, it must be ensured that a business man goes in for an advertising agency that completes the work in the specified budget. Also the advertising agency must make sure that it does not exceed the budget because if it does so, the cost will out-shadow the benefits of the advertising campaign. This will not help the business in any manner. The advertising agency must also be clear about the goals and objectives which the business wants to achieve using the advertisement. When promoting the products and services, the advertising agency must also make sure that the right message gets across to the right people at the right time. If the advertising agency fails to provide the advertisement at the right time, the consumers may shift to another product or service.

Promotional initiatives taken in the consumer durable industry need to be really thought over and contribute in convincing the consumers as these kinds of products need information and conviction in decision making. An advertisement is one of the oldest, yet the most widely used strategy for brand promotion. It has the objective to gain attention of majority of the target population. This is particularly true for billboard or outdoor advertising because the objective is to not just create association with consumers but also create brand retention for the purpose of recall of the product in the mind of the consumer.

Billboard advertising gets its name from the term billing board. It attributes to a large outdoor advertising space that is specifically designed to capture the attention of the pedestrians as well as the motorists (Kahn, 2016). Billboards are deliberately and typically placed around areas of high traffic on foot as well as automotive traffic and are kept striking and creative along with being simple at the same time (Kahn, 2016). Relative to other advertising strategies, billboard advertising can be cheaper and varies according to the size and the location. Advertisers have great thrust on billboard advertising as a technique, though it comes with its own set of height and width restrictions and also lot of distraction rules but still they have the liberty and the freedom to create ads that are not just newsworthy but a great source to push sales (Kahn, 2016). This is because advertising by and large is a push mechanism for increasing sales. The world has witnessed some highly innovative outdoor advertisements in the past with creative inputs such as simulated car crashes, smoke emission or even live persons living inside them have been witnessed. Majority of the investment goes in the space rental, getting innovative with billboard advertising is relatively cheaper. Advertisers are and should be aware that creativity of this type is worth exploring as it gives a much higher ROI and offers better credit to media to get more witnesses to the message (Kahn, 2016). In the present times, the variety in billboards have increased with classic, vinyl, painted, mobile, three dimensional, scented as being some of the few options. 

Ever since Jared Bell presented and explained a huge poster in the public in the mid1800, the advertising of billboards remains as one of the top medium for promoting a brand (Thomas and Alexa, 2015). As per Outdoor Advertising Association of America, Inc in Bulletins (2015), billboards are the largest with strong and impactful form of advertisement. If looking at the progress of adverting, roadside advertising has remained very relevant till the existence of land transportation.  Billboards are a form of outdoor media but in many cases different scholars also distinguishes it from outdoor media and see them as a form of advertisement. (Anna, 2006) According to (Meurs & Aristoff, 2009), this form of advertisements presents an appeal for the brands and products which could be used to gain more market share. Moreover, it develops clear branding through large text sizes, pictures of celebrities and brands/products, clearly explained features and benefits and other such information such as prices. 

Hoardings and Billboards are one of the main competitive edges in medium of advertising. Technological changes also impacts this industry as well as the traditional mode of billboards have shifted to electronic boards. Cut-out billboards are considered to be the new trend in the industry. The industry spends much each year to influence the central and local billboards control, hence, it is taken widely accessible, cheaper, convenient and more attractive. (Hussain & Nizamani, 2011).

PROBLEM

Billboards have remained an important tool to share the information with the target market (Kahn, 2016). On the other hand, many have argued that, the stationary nature of Billboards require consumers to rely on their recall ability where with online ads they can revisit as many times as possible (Chron, 2019). Also, billboard advertising provide an extremely brief, if not momentary, exposure time to assimilate the information as it is considered as a short term advertising tool unless there is a commitment to often change the message (Chron, 2019). Due to the above and many other concerns, the relevance of billboard advertising has witnessed a significant decline as businesses most prefer to promote their brands via broadcast mediums such as TV, radio and the internet so as to achieve value for their money for their advertising efforts (Kahn, 2016). This study seeks to provide an overview of billboard advertising & consumer patronage of goods and services with focus on the CocaCola brand.

BILLBOARD ADVERTISING

An organization cannot dream to become a known brand until it invests in promotional campaigns for which consumer markets have been controlling through advertisements. (Hussainy et al., 2008). In the dynamic world of today, it becomes almost impossible for companies to share their information with the consumers without using any form of advertising. Certainly, this is because of accessibility of thousands of viewers of hundreds of channels of this era. Billboards are one form of advertising your product/brands and communicate your message effectively and with cheaper rates (Hussain & Nizamani, 2011).  (Till & Busler, 2000) explored that there was a strong effect of attractiveness of the endorser on the attitude of respondents towards the product/brand and the intention of their purchase. Research conducted by (Kahle & Homor, 1985) has also shown that the recall rates of a brand are higher when endorser is attractive as compare to unattractive one. The celebrity endorser is a person who enjoys recognition of public and uses that recognition on behalf of a customer good by appearing in a particular advertising.  Several studies by (Bhargava & Donthu, 1999); (Donthu et al. 1993); (Meurs & Aristoff, 2009) have shown the effectiveness of outdoor media marketing in terms of advertising message and awareness. (Donthu et al. 1993) have selected ten outdoor billboards in American settings to check the attention of the passengers/customers pass nearby. Two of them were posted on smaller streets while 8 are posted on main highway road where traffic was comparatively on higher side. In American settings diver is on right hand side was found higher attentive to the billboards and people on left hand side and billboards on small streets were less recalled.  To help companies who advertise through this medium it is important to know which segment of the audience is more attentive to this medium. There is very less literature available which dig into the effect of this form of advertising on sub groups among audiences. Contrary to this, there are studies related to the demographics with the perception of outdoor advertising. (Prendergast & Yuen, 2005) have investigated that respondents from youth perceived handbills as more entertaining and informative than older and those who are mode educated reported that this form is easy to understand. Maximum chunk of companies adopt outdoor advertising that have an impact on geographic locations and effective sales response (Schlossberg, 1990). 

ATTRIBUTES OF BILLBOARD ADVERTISING 

Findings of (Hussain & Nizamani, 2011) have revealed that size of boards, colors used in the board, locations and the images selected in the boards does matters for gaining the attentions of the audience/customers. The research concluded that advertising is now moving towards modern trends with rapid growth, therefore the variables such as size, locations, images used in the board and color schemes of the billboards that have a positive impact on attention should be used adequately. Thus the research provides the evidence that as cheaper, convenient and accessible medium billboard advertising comes out to be one of the most attractive ways to the target market.

For advertising to be successful, it is not enough to send out a message and then hope for a result. Customers are today exposed to more advertisements each day and this can be annoying to them. On the market today, customers tend to have a more negative attitude towards advertising and this makes it harder for organisations to reach their audience. Because of all this advertising strategy is getting of higher importance and it essential for organisations to have a clear strategy to follow (Zanot, 1981). Many may believe that creating advertising is all about creating the ultimate message and choose the perfect media channel, but there is so much more behind all of that. The right strategies have to be created and an advertising plan has to be set in action. There are several theories and models on how organisations can create a good advertising campaign today (Jobber, 2004).

According to Kamran Khan Syed Karamatullah Hussainy, Abdullah Khan and Habibullah Khan, (2016), there are important features that should be considered while creating billboard advertisement to attract the customer. This study highlights the elements that are necessary to create effective billboards so that customer attention can be sought. The study brings out various aspects linked to billboard advertisement, such as, colour, size, celebrity endorsement, logo, texture and the message on the board. The key findings of the study are that the response of the customer towards billboard advertising is dependent on many aspects, lower colour, size and celebrity image are the most crucial amongst all. With the involvement of technology in promotion at a very strong level, it is recommended that the future research brings out the implications of technology on the impact of response towards billboard advertisement.

Mitchell (1986) argued that the advertisements of 2 products having same attributes can have a different impression. The combination of the exact picture, color and the text in an advertisement makes an ad different among others. The visual is associated with the emotions and these emotions come from social needs generated by culture and from biology of the individuals. The visual part of an ad has two main duties, one is to draw the attention and make feeling good. It is believed that individuals translate visual elements of ad design into verbal information of the product (Messaris, 1996).  It is important to understand that design is a combination of colors, shapes lines on a piece of paper and adding up these elements makes a visual information. Thing which is important is how well the design captures the eyes (Messaris, 1996). There are many elements in designing an ad which can construct an ad effective or not;

·         Picture: this includes a model which endorses product or a picture of product/brand itself. Model itself has some characteristics like age, gender, fame, style and nationality.

·         Appeal: this includes themes like fantasy, sex, slice of life, humor or rational etc.

·         Text: this includes attributes color, font and size

·         Color: this includes colors & groups of colors like cold and warm and black & white. 

BILLBOARD ADVERTISING EFFECTS ON CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOURS.

E.K. Bonney (2014) did a research on the impact of advertising on consumer purchase decision. The researcher highlighted that besides advertising, other factors such as product packaging, quality, endorsement influence the action of the consumer towards the purchase decision. The main objective of the study was to identify the factors that motivate the companies to take up the advertising efforts. They identified six principles on which the advertising campaigns run the identified principles are: To score Attention, to arouse interest, to create desire, to incite action, to develop and sustain interest and to create good will. The key findings of their research were that advertising, whether in any form may just serve as a platform to remind the prospective buyer about the existence of the product and it is not the absolute measure that leads to the ultimate purchase decision. It is equally important for the customer to be satisfied as well as attracted to the other factors such as the quality, packaging, features and other things that lead towards the purchase decision. Companies should focus that their advertisements give adequate information to the customers, other than just attracting them towards the product.

In a study by Nwinyinya and Nneoma (2014) on the topic, the impact of Billboard Advertising on Product Promotion‖ identified that the problem of this research work majorly dealt with the ways in which billboard advertising can contribute towards the development of print media. It primarily tries to explain the way in which print advertising is explained or defined by billboard advertising. By the use of chi square the researcher concluded that billboard advertising is one of the most important tools for product promotion. It concluded that billboard advertising does create the platform for print advertising, especially for newly introduced product.

Thales S. Teixeira (2014) researched on a very interesting topic, which is the rising cost of Consumer Attention and the ways in which this cost can be handled. According to the researchers, there are two dimensions of attention: Intensity and Duration. Intensity can be defined as a measure the quality of attention during a break while the durations dimension means its quantity. Duration is far easier to measure as compared to intensity. The qualitative aspects of consumer attention have diminished significantly over the years. This has so happened because the consumers no longer depend upon the Advertisement for information. It is available at their disposal and in abundance on the internet. More over the price for high quality research have escalated significantly over the years. The current and future profits have been significantly diminished because of this. The alternative is to find cheaper attention sources, or increase the sales conversion. 

Read More